Pepsico Case Study Essay Example for Free

Pepsico Case Study Essay 1. I felt that Nooyi’s Letter to Shareholders was fairly effective. She starts by mentioning that â€Å"the greatest challenge in business today is to renew a successful company through positioning for long-term growth and profitability but also performing in the current marketplace.† Her opening statement accurately reflects her emphasis in the letter. She goes on to make several statements that are important for investors to hear about making investments for future growth. She highlights Pepsi’s ongoing global growth initiatives (innovating globally by delighting locally) and also discusses Pepsi’s healthier offerings, both of which I feel are appealing concepts for shareholders in today’s market. She also makes some important statements about ongoing efficiency and leveraging the brand. Her letter does a good job of answering potential questions that the stockholders may have on thePepsico Case Study current status of the company as well as future plans. While her focuses are effective, I felt that some additional detail about growth within their â€Å"healthy† segment could’ve helped her argument as well as continued discussion on Pepsi’s ethics. Overall, her letter is a great pitch for prospective investors domestically and abroad. 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis seemed to paint a more pessimistic view of the future of PepsiCo than Nooyi’s letter. They bring up several factors in order to prepare shareholders for potentially rough times. Part of these factors includes mention of a California proposition, which would force warning labels on unhealthy food. Potential layoffs and a possible knock to Pepsi’s credit rating are also discussed. Furthermore, management recognizes that they are operating in a highly competitive market. Some of Pepsi’s core, high margin products are losing market share to Coke products. Ongoing success is dependent on effective promotion and marketing and Coke has been a leader in this area. Pepsi management recognizes the need to innovate to remain competitive and proper positioning is key. It could prove to be an issue if they don’t properly anticipate shifts in demand. There are also concerns about potential climate changes, and other regulat ory measures. These things could severely impact production and demand for certain segments of Pepsi’s products. 3. 4. Market to Book Ratio compares the market value of the firm’s investments to their cost. Current Ratio is current assets divided by current liabilities and gives a measure of short-term liquidity. Debt to Equity Ratio is a measure of a company’s financial leverage calculated by dividing its total liabilities by stockholders equity. Total Asset Turnover is sales divided by total assets and assists with an understanding of dollars generated relative to dollars in assets. Times Interest Earned Ratio measures how well a company has its interest obligations covered and is calculated by dividing EBIT by Interest. Profit Margin is calculated by dividing net income by sales. ROA is a measure of profit per dollar of assets and ROE is a measure of how stockholders fared during the year. Finally, EPS gives us market price per share of stock by dividing net income by shares outstanding. 5. Over the past three years, revenues and expenses have increased. Net profits have also increased. Debt to Equity has increased over the last few years. Profit margins have decreased and focus has shifted to less profitable products. ROA has been decreasing as well. Daily sales in inventory are decreasing. Intangible assets, including goodwill, have greatly increased. Also, Return on Capital Investment has decreased. 7.Operating Activities: 1) Other net decreased by $688. 2) Accounts Receivable is increasing. Financing Activities: 1) Acquisition of non-controlling interests 2) Cash Dividends 3) Repurchase of dividends 4) Long term debt is down from 2010-2011. Investing Activities: 1)Acqusition of WBD 2) Change in Gross Fixed Assets (decreasing debt in 2011) 8.In her Letter to Shareholders, Chairman Nooyi made a good case for increasing shareholder value in the short and long runs. She’ll need to encourage management to continue to innovate and achieve high sales in the current market while at the same time focusing on future investment and continued global expansion and presence. Transparency with investors is important for building trust and confidence. Marketing and promotion will be another key element to PepsiCo’s continued growth among the high level of competition already existing in their many segments. Reduction of accounts receivable can lead to better bottom line results, efficiency, and reduction of long-term debt through the repayment of principle. PepsiCo should also continue to expand its â€Å"healthy† product line such as sports drinks, whole grain healthy snacks, etc. to take advantage of market trends.

Force Plate Design And Use Health And Social Care Essay

Force Plate Design And Use Health And Social Care Essay Force plates are a powerful tool for examining the kinetic characteristics of an athletes movement. The plates offer a large variety of information about the external forces involved, but have very specific characteristics that define the potential quality of collected data. Through proper understanding of these qualities, and sound use of calibration, filtering, and sampling procedures, the user can ensure that the error disguising the signal of interest is minimized. Thus, the collected data is at its highest possible quality, and inference about the athlete in question is strongest. This paper deals with the aforementioned topics related to force plate design and use, including a section describing an example laboratory set-up. Keywords: force plate, filtering, sampling, data collection, kinetic Introduction Force is the entity that results in movement- it can be understood as a push, or pull, or simply, a tendency to distort a material. Measurement of force can allow a coach or sport scientist to quantitatively understand an athletes execution of a skill, or to assess an athletes physical progress. For example, assessment of the external forces applied to the ground by an athlete in a vertical jump provide a very good picture of the explosive abilities of an athlete, as well a very good indicator of the progress of those abilities if measured at multiple time points in a training program. Force plates and other force measurement devices are widely used to assess the external forces generated by athletes. Force plates in particular measure external ground reaction forces in up to three planes -vertical, anterior-posterior, and medial lateral. This data provides a picture of the interaction within an athlete-ground system, something extremely difficult to do without a force plate. It is important to distinguish between kinetic and kinematic analysis. Kinematics is related to movement, what is visually observable, e.g. positions velocities and directions, while kinetics refers to what causes the movement to occur (i.e. torques and forces), and is not directly observable. Force plates allow one to see the kinetic characteristics of a skill, and thus the forces that cause the precise execution of that skill. Force Plate Design and Use Force plates measure external forces based on the principles of Newtons third law- that an object exerting a force on another object has a simultaneous force exerted upon it that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the original force exerted. Thus, the force plate measures ground reaction force (GRF). GRF is the force the ground exerts as a reaction (equal, opposite, and simultaneous) to the forces applied to the ground or other object by the athletes body (see Figure 1). This principle allows the researcher to determine the forces exerted by an athlete while in contact with the force plate. In a vertical jump for example, the athletes body mass and propulsion forces from the jump exert a push on the plate, causing a tendency of the plate to distort. This tendency is measured as GRF. The kinetic information obtained from force plate data then provides an understanding of the kinematic characteristics through a derivation of Newtons second law that the force on a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body and the acceleration of the body, represented by the equation force = mass X acceleration. Given that the forces can be measured by a force plate, and the mass of the athlete is known, a very good understanding of the kinematic characteristics of the skill can be obtained through calculation of the acceleration of the athlete using the aforementioned equation. Five important pieces of information can be obtained from a modern full featured force plate: force in the X, Y, and Z directions, the center of pressure, and moment (torque) around each of the axes. Each of these variables shows a picture of the forces exerted by an object (i.e. a limb) on the force plate. This data allows the investigator to determine a multitude of measures. For example, force plates have been used to study the take-off forces in pole vault technique (3) and the forces involved in the second pull in weightlifters (7); as it stands, the uses for force plates are numerous. Before analysis and use of the collected data, processing of the analog signal must occur. Figure 2 shows the complete flow of the force plate data, from the initial analog signal output (continuous voltage) from the force plate, to the final digital input signal leading into the final analysis. Force is applied to the force plate, which changes the excitation charge sent through the force plate in proportion to the force applied. That new charge is sent to an amplifier. Analog signal processing (some kind of filtering or smoothing of the signal) can occur. After the signal has been amplified, the current goes to a data acquisition device, where it enters an analog-digital converter which converts the continuous analog signal to a discrete digital signal. The newly-converted digital data is recorded as evenly spaced samples, and more processing of the digital signal can occur. It is at this point that the recorded digital signal can be analyzed. Load Cells Forces must be measured through indirect means, through a force transducer. A force transducer functions toconvert physical states into electrical signals (21). The load cells in a force plate transduce the force applied to the plate into a measureable electrical voltage and current. There are a variety of load cell types. Two commonly used load cells in force plates are piezoelectric transducers and strain-gauge load cells. Both types of load cells receive an excitation voltage input, and output an different electrical current which is proportional to the load experienced by the cell (based on Ohms Law: current = voltage / resistance) (1). The operation of each differs in a few distinct ways. Piezoelectric cells operate based on the fact that when a piezoelectric material has a force applied to it, a charge appears on the face of the material; This charge is proportional to the force applied. Recording of the resultant voltage allows calculation of the applied force. The strain gauge load cells operate on the fact that changes in electrical current occur when a metal or semiconductor is deformed (1, 19). A thin sheet of metal or semiconductor material is bonded to a metal object, which provides a solid structural device on which to apply the force. Deformations in the device and the bonded sheet result in changes of the electrical resistance of the bonded sheet, thus modifying the current that moves through the bonded sheet. Monitoring of these changes allow for calculation of the force applied to the device. A common form of the strain gauge is the shear beam load cell (1, 19). One end of the beam is anchored to a stable platform, while the other is extended so that it can receive a load. A foil sheet or semiconductor is bonded to the beam, and an electrical current is run through the sheet. Force applied at the end of the beam (perpendicular to the plane of the sheet) causes deformation of the beam, resulting in electrical resistance changes across the sheet bonded to the beam. This results in a different electrical current and allows measurement of the applied force. Shear beam load cells have the advantage of a high force capacity and accurate measurement, which can make them a good candidate for use in force plates. A typical tri-planar force plate is constructed with four three-component load cells (14). Each three-component cell measures force in the X, Y and Z direction, and the placement of the load cells allow for calculation of center of pressure, center of force and torque about the axes. The four load cells are arranged in each of the four quadrants of the force plate, evenly spaced from each other and from the edges. Moment about the axes, center of pressure and center of force can be calculated based from measurements from data from individual load cells and their respective locations on the forceplate. Typically, the forces that are transduced from force plates are summed from measurements from individual force transducers on the plate. For example, in a force plate with four load cells, one in each corner, vertical ground reaction force is calculated from the sum of the forces measured on each cell. Likewise, in a force plate that is capable of anterior-posterior measurement or medial-lateral forces, the forces of interest are the summed composed of the total of the load cells of the plate. Sampling Monitoring the changes in force applied to the force plate requires sampling at regular intervals. Sampling frequencies of 500 to 2000 hertz (Hz) have been noted in the more recent sport science literature, however a sampling frequency of 1000 Hz is perhaps most common (14). While substantial research has examined sampling frequency in a wide variety of applications (engineering, for example), substantially less has been done to examine sampling frequency in sport science, although several authors have evaluated the variability of vertical jump performance data with different sampling frequencies. Vanrenterghem, et al. (24) found that sampling frequencies of above 100 Hz were adequate and Hori, et al. (10) found that sampling at about 200 Hz was accurate enough for accurate measurement. Contrary to the previous authors, Street, et al. (23) found that sampling rates of less than 1080 Hz could lead to an underestimation of jump height (calculated via the impulse method) by up to 4.4%. Other authors have recommended a sampling frequency of 500 Hz or 1000 Hz in force plate research to ensure accuracy, especially when impact is involved (2). Sampling frequencies must be high enough to ensure accuracy of measurement and reduction of signal aliasing (where the recorded digital signal fails to accurately show the original signal due to inadequate sampling). The Nyquist Theorum suggests that the absolute minimum sampling frequency is two times the frequency of interest. Bartlett (2) recommends a sampling frequency of at least 500 Hz, however 1000 Hz is a common choice for force plate capture of human motion (14). High sampling frequency is especially important when creating force-time curves in the early time segments of the curve. For example, some performance monitoring testing evaluates forces applied in the first 50ms of application of force in the isometric mid-thigh pull (12). At a sampling frequency of only 200 ms, if one were to construct a force-time curve, only 11 data points could be used for constructing this 50ms long curve. While a polynomial function could be applied to the 11 data points, a greater degree of accuracy for the curve will be obtained with a frequency of 500 Hz or 1000 Hz, because there would be 26 and 51 data points, respectively, from which to construct a curve. Signal Amplification and Conditioning Data collected from the force plate is not useable until amplification and signal processing occurs. Typically, analog signals (the raw voltage values) from the force plate are amplified and sent to an analog to digital (AD) converter (14). The AD converter then converts the analog voltage signal into a scaled digital signal, a signal that is able to be processed by computer software. Custom software developed in programs like LabVIEWTM (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) or Matlab (Mathworks Incorporated, Natick, MA, USA) can perform signal processing to clean up some of the noise from the data for use. Other methods exist for smoothing data that can be done in spreadsheet software such as Microsoft ExcelTM (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA). Many force plates come with proprietary software with filtering and smoothing methods included. Through the collection process, amplification and A/D conversion, there are a number of electrical noise sources that may contaminate the data (5). A number of methods exist for filtering the noise in the signal, in order to best isolate and identify the signal of interest. This filtering can be done on either the analog or digital signal, or both. A low-pass filter eliminates frequencies above a certain level defined in the method, while a high-pass filter eliminates frequencies below a designated level. As noise often occurs at higher frequencies, a low pass filter is able to eliminate much of the noise in the signal. Sometimes it is necessary to restrict the data collected to within a range of frequencies, during which time a band-pass filter can be used. Other times it is necessary to eliminate a certain range of frequencies from a signal; a notch filter will be able to accomplish that task. There are a multitude of signal processors and conditioners that are used in digital signal processing. Three common methods of reducing signal noise are Butterworth filters, splines and frequency domain techniques, such as Fourier Analysis (5). Yet another method is a moving average, which is relatively simple to calculate in Excel. Each of these methods operates differently, and provided that the optimal filter is applied to a signal, the end result is the same: the signal is less choppy and smoother, thus data is cleaner and easier to analyze (for more detailed information, the reader is directed toward Bartlett (2), Challis (5)) and Street, et al. (23). The general recommendation for filter choice is the one that most effectively and accurately isolates the signal of interest. Calibration Force plate calibration is necessary to establish a regression equation to calculate ground reaction forces from output voltage, as well as to ensure accuracy of data obtained from testing. Because force plates only provide an output voltage, a calibration equation must be used to calculate what the ground reaction forces actually are. Unfortunately, often little is done by researchers to address the proper calibration of force plates (9). While calibration of some of the testable variables of the force plate can be difficult, calibration is absolutely necessary given the immense error that can be introduced even with small errors in calibration (9). The general idea behind calibration is that a range of known forces is applied to the force plate to see the resultant voltage given by the load cells, allowing the creation of a regression equation (1). For the Z-direction, a common method of calibration is to place a range of dead weights of known mass on top of the force plate, which allows the researcher to calibrate based on the resulting output voltage of the known mass. Calibration of the horizontal forces, torque and center of pressure can be a more difficult endeavor. However, researchers have proposed methods of calibration that are possible in the laboratory environment, such as a pulley system for X- and Y-direction calibration as proposed by Hall, et al. (9). In the pulley system, a regression equation is built from the output voltages with progressively higher (horizontally) applied loads. A pendulum system for dynamic calibration designed by Fairburn, et al. (6) is also a possibility for more advanced calibration. In-laboratory testing would allow a laboratory to avoid the potentially expensive calibration that is done by the force plate companies and private metricians. Technical Information of Note Force plate technical reports typically contain a data table with information about some or all of the following: linearity, hysteresis, crosstalk, and/or natural frequency. Each of these items provides valuable information about the characteristics of the force plate, as each affects the data obtained from it. Refer to Table 1 for recommended ranges. Linearity Linearity is the maximum deviation of collected force plate data from a straight line (2). Perfect linearity is ideal, but is not necessarily a requirement for accurate data collection and analysis, as it can be calibrated for by applying a higher order polynomial to the data points(2). Linearity can be expressed as: ( Where y=maximum deviation from linearity, and Y=full scale deflection (8). Full scale deflection refers to the voltage output with the highest load within the limit of the force plate. Dividing deviation from linearity by the highest voltage achieved gives a relative measure of linearity, and allows comparison to a standard. Hysteresis Hysteresis is the difference in output values seen during the loading and unloading of a material (2). This is a quality that should also be minimized, as many force plate measurements involve both a loading and unloading component (see Figure 3). For example, large hysteresis in a load cell might over-estimate the forces in the eccentric portion of a squat, while correctly estimating the forces during the concentric portion. Hysteresis is sometimes seen as a result of a mechanical lag in deformity return to normal shape occurring during loading of the force transducers. Hysteresis can be calculated with the equation: ) Where XL = output voltage for a given load during loading, XU = output voltage for the same given load during unloading, and Z =full scale deflection (2). Cross-Talk Many force plates measure forces in multiple planes; the components required to measure the different directions generally have at least a minor amount of cross-talk. Cross-talk refers to the interference of force in one component direction with the measurement of force by a component in another direction (2). It is important that this quality is minimized, so that forces from one plane are not measured on another, thus falsely attributing forces to an incorrect source. Bartlett (2) stated that less than 3% of full-scale deflection is preferable. Natural Frequency Maximum Frequency Ratio When struck, every object has a frequency at which it will tend to vibrate, (5). Force plates, as they are constructed of multiple materials, sometimes have multiple natural frequencies. Force plate manufacturers often report the natural frequency of the force plate when set up according to manufacturer specifications. This natural frequency should be significantly higher than that of the measurement, as it greatly increases the ease of isolating the measurement signal from the plate vibration. Force plates generally have high natural frequencies to aid in the ease of isolation through filtering. For example, the Kistler Type 9281E Triplanar force plate has a natural frequency of 1000 Hz (Kistler Group, Winterthur, Switzerland). The high natural frequency of this force plate is high enough to measure the impact activities of sports, which can surpass 100 Hz (2). The ratio of frequency of the measured skill to natural frequency (Maximum Frequency Ratio) should be less or equal to 0.2, so that the information of interest in the signal can be effectively isolated from the natural frequency of the plate. Minimizing Error The possibility of inaccurate measurements must be minimized if accurate conclusions are to be drawn. Certain steps can be taken to reduce the possibility of error, although even the most optimal setup will have at least a small amount of error. First and foremost, if a user does not know how to properly use the force plate and the software associated with it, the largest source of error may be the user himself. In this article, it is emphasized that with a proper education and the right information, the reader of this paper should be able to understand the basics of using a force platform, thus severely reducing potential for user error. Adherence to the recommendations by Bartlett (2) will also serve to ensure accuracy of the data collected by the plate. Any deviance of the force plate characteristics outside of the recommendations increases the risk of inaccuracy. For example, Lees and Lake (14) and Hall, et al. (9) showed how cross-talk of even 1% could introduce a large amount of error in certain gait measurements. Calibration should occur over a range of loads, from unloaded to above the highest expected load, within the manufacturer-specified loads of the force plate (if the expected loads are outside of the range, then a new plate with greater load range is necessary). For example, in an isometric pull, where measurements of vertical ground reaction force can exceed 7000 N or more (4), the force plate should be calibrated in the Z-axis with loads ranging from 0kg to more than 700kg. For horizontal calibration, a pulley system, like the one designed by Hall, et al. (9) would suffice. Dynamic calibration can be a bit more tricky, requiring expensive equipment or complex methodology. This can be done by major force plate companies or by private metricians. It is also extremely important to install and adjust force plates based on manufacturer recommendations. Manufacturer-reported technical data about the force plate (e.g. hysteresis, linearity) are measured and determined under set conditions. Recommendations for where the force plate is installed, the type of flooring installed on and which floor level it is installed on must all be followed. A level surface for installation is required. Should the conditions during use deviate from those specified by the manufacturer, there is the possibility that those reported qualities (linearity, hysteresis) are no longer accurate. Even with an ideal setup, there remain other sources for error. Other such sources of error are thermal noise, chemical noise, and electrical interference. Thermal noise is associated with the temperature of the device in use. Part of the reason for allowing a device to warm up is so that thermal noise is allowed to stabilize, as rising component temperatures result in changing electrical noise. Chemical noise is random noise that exists everywhere, and comes from variations in temperature, humidity, pressure and other sources. Electrical noise results from devices around the testing area that use electricity, such as lighting and equipment. Electrical noise is at 60 Hz and progressively weaker at its harmonics- 120 Hz, 180 Hz, etc. For example, if a force platform is placed in a room that has fluorescent lights, air conditioning/heat, and the building is located near power lines, electrical noise may be a substantial source of interference. In all devices, the measured value is the result of the true score plus error. While one can attempt to eliminate as much error as possible, there will always be a degree of error in the collected data. It is up to the tester to eliminate and reduce as many sources of error as possible, and a theoretical judgment as to how much error in the collection is acceptable. Our Laboratory Equipment and Processing While our laboratory uses tri-directional force plates, the majority of force plates we use are unidirectional, and measure only in the vertical direction (See Figure 4 for a photo). Although it is a drawback to only allow collection in the vertical direction, the plates offer a substantial reduction in cost over other plates offered by KistlerTM or AMTITM, for example. Furthermore, a number of studies have demonstrated that vertical forces and vertically- oriented skills have strong relationships to explosiveness and speed in sporting movements, thus measurement of vertical forces is of substantial importance (12, 20, 22, 25). In addition, we use force plates (0.914 x 0.46 m; 3 x 1.5; Rice Lake Weighing Systems, Rice Lake, WI) situated side-by-side to allow for collection of unilateral force data. For bilateral data collection, the forces from each force plate are summed. Each plate sits on a level concrete pad that is on the ground floor of the laboratory, to reduce contamination o f data from extraneous sources. Each force plate in the Sport Science laboratory is attached to Transducer Techniques TM0-2 amplifier and conditioner module (Transducer Techniques, Temecula, CA, USA). The amplifier provides both the excitation signal (the initial current going to the strain gage load cell) and amplification of the analog signal. In addition, the module provides an analog low-pass filter at 16 Hz. In between the amplifier/conditioner and the A/D converter is a shielded connector block. The BNC-2110 (National Instruments, Austin, TX, USA) accepts the analog signal and conveys the signal to the A/D converter. The block then connects to a DAQCard-6063E (National Instruments, Austin TX, USA). The DAQCard-6063E converts the analog signal to a digital signal. The digitized signal is then analyzed with custom software developed in LabVIEWTM (National Instruments, Austin TX, USA). The custom software weve developed in LabVIEWTM samples the analog signal at 1000hz. The custom software has been set up to save the digital signal file and filter the digitized signal using a 4th order low-pass Butterworth filter at 100 Hz. From there, the signal can be analyzed for whatever variables are of interest. Refer to Kraska, et al. (12) for examples of measures of interest for static and countermovement jumps, and Leary, et al. (13) for examples of measures of interest in the isometric mid-thigh pull. The Data Collection Process Calibration of our force plates is performed immediately before the data collection process, which ensures that the calibration equation used in data analysis is established under similar environmental conditions as the data collection as well as avoids a potential shift of voltage output over time. Prior to calibration, force plates, amplifiers, A/D converters and computers are all turned on so that all of the collection equipment can warm up (thus stabilizing thermal and instrumentation noise). After this warm up period, the force plates are calibrated using loads from 0 kg to 350kg or 500kg, depending on the specific use of the plate (either jumps or isometric pulls). The plates are progressively loaded in 25kg increments, with the output voltage recorded each time. A linear regression equation is then applied to the calibration load data set in Microsoft Excel. This regression equation is saved, and used in the custom LabVIEWTM program during analysis. Conclusion A full understanding of a testing device and its characteristics are an integral part of accuracy, validity and reliability of testing. The force plate is a rather complex device. The complexities of the device and its peripherals allow the user to collect a large variety of high-quality data for analysis that are difficult to obtain via other means. While it is somewhat difficult to master use of the device, the plethora of information that can be obtained from a force plate makes the endeavor more than worthwhile.

Controlling the Spread of Disease

Controlling the Spread of Disease Cholera Cholera is caused by the bacterium vibrio cholerae, which contaminates food and drinking water This bacterium infects the small intestines with a toxin called CTX , which in turn causes severe diarrhoea Normally present in coastal waters, attaching to crustaceans known as copepods which are found in plankton rich environments (WordPress, 2014). This bacteria does not always make people ill however, this bacteria may come out in stools, which can contaminate the water supply When vibrio cholerae enters the human body toxic poisons are released, causing diarrhoea The nutrients in the water enables provides ideal condition for the bacteria to multiply Prevention To prevent contracting cholera use bottled or boiled water when drinking and preparing food and drink Thoroughly washing hands on a regular basis Malaria: a potentially life threatening disease The life cycle of malaria Malaria plasmodium parasites have two hosts; female anopheles females and humans Female anopheles mosquitos infected by malaria parasites Inject sporozites into humans whilst feeding on their blood Sporozites then infect cells within the liver; transforming into thousands of merozoites. These merozites travel out of the liver and then invade the red blood cells; where they multiply forming new merozites Red blood cells then burst; this releases merozites which go on to infect other cells Whilst invading red blood cells merozites can develop into gametocytes; which is the sexual reproductive stage. Gametocytes are sucked up by mosquitos when they are feeding; fusing with gametes to make zygotes in the mosquitos gut Zygotes become fertilised and form motile ookinete; which turn into oocyst, these then multiply producing thousands of sporozoites These then move into the salivary gland of the mosquito after around a week; ready to infect humans So what can be done to protect against malaria? The use of mosquito nets are commonly used to stop mosquitos from biting as well as the use of insect repellent Some medicines are given to people to help prevent the risk of contracting malaria: doxycycline, proguanil with atovaquone, mefloquine; some of which need to be taken for weeks after return (disqus, 2014). Influenza Influenza (flu) is a common viral infection which attacks the nose, throat and lungs (respiratory system) Influenza is air borne and can be transmitted between people if someone has the virus and sneezes, others can inhale this The virus can also be present on objects an infected person has touched Cytokines are produced when the innate immune system starts to respond to the threat these induce responses such as the inflammatory response Lifecycle The flu enters its host and then invades cells within the respiratory system The virus uses its host cell to replicate its DNA; forcing the cell to make copies of the virus This triggers the body’s immune response which sends white blood cells to the area of infection If not stopped the virus can then break free from the host cell allowing it to infect other cells around the body (fitbuff.com, 2009). Prevention Vaccinations are offered to protect against influenza but are not one hundred percent effective Washing hands regularly prevents the spread of infection Athlete’s foot (trichophyton) Trichophyton rubrum causes tinea pedis (athletes foot) which feeds off keratin in the upper layer of the skin, hair and nails Trichophyton rubrum form part of the dermatophytes which is a group of fungi Within four to ten days symptoms appear as a result of body’s inflammatory response; resulting in a red rash on the skin The blistered and itchy skin occurs as a result of the trichophyton reproducing on the skin, particularly they like moist places such as in-between the toes If the fungus infection is not treated it can spread to other areas of the feet such as the toe nails This fungi can be passed from person to person and is prevalent in public showers and swimming pools, where skin particles are left around Symptoms Skin between the toes can burn and become itchy Early treatment is recommended If untreated in the first instance it can cause the skin to become cracked and infected further with bacteria The fungus infection may cause an unpleasant smell Prevention Thoroughly washing feet daily and making sure all areas are completely dry before putting socks on Not wearing socks and shoes where possible to allow air to circulate around the feet Changing socks regularly, this is because fungus can multiply on flakes of skin Bibliography Advameg. (2014). Athletes foot. [online] Available: http://www.faqs.org/health/topics/2/Athlete-s-foot.html. Last accessed 24/9/2014> Bupa. (2014). Malaria – prevention. [online] Available: http://www.bupa.co.uk/individuals/health-information/directory/m/malaria-prevention. Last accessed 24/9/2014> Horizon Primary Care. (2012). The Life Cycle of the Flu. [online] Available: http://horizonprimarycare.com/the-life-cycle-of-the-flu/. Last accessed 24/9/2014> How stuff works. (2014). How Viruses Work. [online] Available: http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/cellular-microscopic/virus-human2.htm. Last accessed 25/9/2014> Interpod Pty Ltd. (2013). What is Tinea Pedis aka Athletes foot? . [online] Available: http://www.interpod.com.au/symptoms/what-is-tinea-pedis-aka-athletes-foot-diagnosis-treatment-and-pain-relief/. Last accessed 24/9/2014> Live strong. (2014). Life Cycle of Influenza. [online] Available: http://www.ehow.com/about_5491671_life-cycle-influenza.html. Last accessed 24/9/2014> malariavaccine. (2014). Life cycle of the malaria parasite. [online] Available: http://www.malariavaccine.org/malvac-lifecycle.php. Last accessed 24/9/2014> malaria.wellcome. (2014). The malaria lifecycle. [online] Available: http://malaria.wellcome.ac.uk/interactive/parasitelifecycle/interactive.html. Last accessed 24/9/2014> Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2014). Cholera. [online] Available: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/cholera/basics/causes/con-20031469. Last accessed 24/9/2014> Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2013). Influenza (flu). [online] Available: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/flu/basics/definition/con-20035101. Last accessed 24/9/2014> medicalnewstoday. (2013). What Is Cholera? What Causes Cholera?. [online] Available: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/189269.php. Last accessed 24/9/2014> Medline Plus. (2014). Immune response. 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The Lottery :: essays research papers

In Shirley Jackson’s "The Lottery," she uses the element of surprise. The way the story ends is unlike anything anyone could predict. There are however several alternative ways the story could have ended. The following is one possible alternative ending to "The Lottery". Everyone was prepared. Thirty minutes prior to the drawing, the villagers started collecting the best and largest stones they possibly could. Mrs. Dunbar picked up a handful of pebbles and stuffed them in her pocket, she than chose a stone so huge she had to pick it up with both hands and it made it difficult for her to walk. Mrs. Delacroix collected some small pebbles and made it just in time. Bill Hutchinson went over to his wife and forced the slip of paper out of her hand. It had a black spot on it, the black spot Mr. Summers had made the night before with the heavy pencil in the coal-company office. Bill Hutchinson held it up and there was a stir in the crowd. "All right, folks," Mr. Summers said. "Let’s finish quickly." Although the villagers had forgotten the ritual and lost the original black box, they still remembered to use stones. The pile of stones the boys had made earlier was ready; there were stones on the ground that the villagers had prepared earlier along with blowing scraps of paper that hod come out of the box. Mrs. Delacroix picked up the huge stone she selected earlier and turned to Mrs. Dunbar. "Come on," she said. "Hurry up." Tessie Hutchinson was in the center of a cleared space by now, and she held her hands out desperately as the villagers moved in on her. "It isn’t fair," she said. Just two seconds before everyone started hailing stones at her, Old Man Warner yelled out "STOP!!" "Everybody STOP!" The villagers turned to him in shock and disappointment. Conversation broke out among the crowd.

La violence scolaire - French Essay :: Papers

La violence scolaire - French Essay La violence scolaire est un problÃÆ' ¨me en France depuis longtemps mais pendant la derniÃÆ' ¨re decade, le nombre de cases de violence ait augmentÃÆ' © considÃÆ' ©rablement. Il y avait eu six plans contre la violence mis en place pendant ce decade mais les faits nÂ’a cessÃÆ' © dÂ’augmenter. Pendant dix ans, la petit dÃÆ' ©liquance de mineurs a augmentÃÆ' © de 79% et la derniÃÆ' ¨re annÃÆ' ©e, 81.362 cases de violence scolaire dans ÃÆ' ©coles ont ÃÆ' ©tÃÆ' © rapportÃÆ' ©. Il y a beaucoup de raisons pour la violence qui a devenu si ordinaire dans les ÃÆ' ©coles franÃÆ' §aises. Toujours il y aura des petit disputes entre ÃÆ' ©lÃÆ' ¨ves mais il y a aussi des plus grandes facteurs. Beaucoup des ÃÆ' ©lÃÆ' ¨ves viennent de quartiers trÃÆ' ¨s pauvres et vivent des situations dramatiques, par exemple leur parents sont au chà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â€ž ¢mage, ils habitant dans des taudis ou ils subissent le racisme (la nombre de cases de violence racisme a particuliÃÆ' ¨rement augmentÃÆ' © pendant la derniÃÆ' ¨re decade, de pair avec lÂ’augmentation de nombre dÂ’immigrÃÆ' ©s qui entrer en France). Ils nÂ’entrevoient aucune perpective dÂ’avenir donc ils ne comprennent pas pourquoi ils doivent aller au college et ils commencent a le detester. Bien sÃÆ' »r, ÃÆ' §e nÂ’est pas seulement les ÃÆ' ©lÃÆ' ¨ves de situations maux qui sont violentes au collÃÆ' ¨ge, mais les ÃÆ' ©coles avec les nombres plus hauts de cases de violence sont les ÃÆ' ©coles qui situÃÆ' ©s dans les quarties pauvres. LÃÆ'  , les ÃÆ' ©lÃÆ' ¨ves issus de milieux populaires sÂ’y retrouvent en masse. LÂ’ÃÆ' ©cole reproduit donc les inÃÆ' ©galites sociales et cela provoque leur haine et violence quÂ’ils montrent au collÃÆ' ¨ge. Aussi, ces derniÃÆ' ¨res annÃÆ' ©es, lÂ’augmentation de la violence scolaire est allÃÆ' ©e de pair avec la diminution des moyens accordÃÆ' ©s ÃÆ'   lÂ’enseignement. Il y a seulement une simple corrÃÆ' ©lation. LÂ’augmentation du nombre dÂ’ÃÆ' ©lÃÆ' ¨ves par classe, lÂ’impossibilitÃÆ' © dÂ’encore donner une aide individualisÃÆ' ©e auz ÃÆ' ©lÃÆ' ¨ves en difficultÃÆ' © ne peuvent quÂ’accentuer les ÃÆ' ©checs et ÃÆ' ªtre ainsi des gÃÆ' ©nÃÆ' ©rateurs indirects de violence. Bien quÂ’il y eÃÆ' »t beaucoup de plans pour arrÃÆ' ªter la violence scolaire, aucune plan a eu un grand effet.

Modelling human decision-making

This paper anchors the development of the simulation modeling the human decision making. Series of project have been made and applied to attest the model mentioned. In specific, the focus of the project is about the process of using simulation and the methods which extracts knowledge about human decision making. One method used is the artificial intelligence method which figures out the decision-making strategies of human. And with this, it made possible to assess performance of the decision makers, who are the target respondents of the project. Moreover, the paper presents results of current projects done and motivational factors that affects the model, Human decision making. 1. Introduction There were previous studies and investigations made since mid-1990 on how to use and apply the artificial intelligence method as an alternative on the real subject, human decision making, in the simulation. This paper provides related literature that will be useful for present and future projects about simulation of human decision-making. Starting from an idea generated when attempting to model rail marshalling yards, an artificial example of simulation and expert systems working in collaboration was generated. The ideas were then applied to a real case of maintenance operations at an engine assembly plant. Future work is looking into simulation as a means of knowledge elicitation. The paper briefly describes each of these phases of work and concludes by discussing why it is important to model human decision-making† Conclusion: Why Model Human Decision Making? Modeling human decision-making process for the improvement of human decision-making is far more important than the improvement of AI simulators. The development of the human mind is more important because in complex situations, the mind is more reliable and flexible in terms of making decisions. Simulators are mere copies of what the human mind can do, and thus, it is not that flexible in terms of changes.

Describe How the Setting Can Value and Celebrate Individuality Essay

Describe how the setting can value and celebrate individuality The Nursery shows respectful awareness of all the major events in the lives of the children and families in the nursery, and in our society as a whole and welcome the diversity of backgrounds from which they come. In order to achieve this, the nursery aims to acknowledge a range of cultural activities which are celebrated in our area and by the families involved with the nursery by:- †¢ Without indoctrination in specific faith, children will be made aware of the cultural activities which are being celebrated by their own families or others, and will be introduced where appropriate to the stories behind the cultural activities. We do this by asking any parents with specific interests, cultural differences or jobs of interest are invited to come in to the nursery to talk to the children. The setting has had visits from Jewish Parents to discuss Hanukah, a Paramedic explaining their job and a visit from a Farmer with his tractor! †¢ Children will be encouraged to welcome a range of different cultural activities together with the stories, celebrations and special food and clothing they involve, as part of their diversity of life. Through play, the Nursery makes the children aware of other cultures and backgrounds. Recently to make children aware of â€Å"The Chinese New Year† the children made a Chinese Dragon out of two cardboard boxes and painted pictures using chopsticks. Children are invited to taste foods from different countries at snack time. These snacks include, Rice, Guacamole, Naan Bread and Pizza. They are also able to dress up in different cultural clothes. †¢ Children and families that celebrate at home cultural activities with which the rest of the nursery is not familiar will be invited to share their activity with the rest of the group, if they wish. The nursery has had visits from Jewish Parents to discuss Hanukah. †¢ Bilingual/multilingual children and adults are an asset. They will be valued and their languages recognised and respected in the nursery. In these cases key words in their home language will be used by staff based on parental advice. †¢ The dietary rules of religious groups and also of vegetarians/vegans are known in the nursery and met in appropriate ways. Children who are unable to eat these excluded foods are offered an alternative at snack time.