Anti-inflammatory Function of Gut Macrophages

Anti-inflammatory Function of Gut MacrophagesColonic mucous membrane is a very peculiar immunological site daily exposed to a huge amount of harmless antigens. It is important for the resistant system to be able to recognize this innocuous antigens from pathogens. Among wholly the immune cells, CX3CR1+ macrophages exploit this critical fibre. In this commentary on our recent publication on Immunobiology (Non-redundant role of the chemokine receptor CX3CR1 in the anti-inflammatory function of bowel macrophages(1)we want to highlight the crucial and anomalous role of these macrophages in order to maintain homeostasis and avoid the rise of aberrant inflammation and tissue damage.The intestine is an soap tissue able to maintain balance between the immune system activation and the tolerance against the very huge amount of harmless antigens that be in contact with the intestinal lumen, including food antigens and microflora.It is wakeless for our health that our immune system is a ble to respond with a robust and appropriate response to potential precarious antigens but the same reaction against harmless antigens, like commensal bacteria or dietary proteins, could be very dangerous and could give rise to allergies or chronic inflammation that, in the end, can lead to tissue damage or cancer development. Many immune cells participate to the maintenance of the homeostasis in goats rue, with the role of understanding how an antigen is a potential danger for the organism and being silenced in response to commensal bacteria and food antigens.This complex landscape includes T and B lymphocytes, natural killer cells, innate lymphoid cells, eosinophils and mononuclear phagocytes dendritic cells and macrophages.Among the latter, monocyte-derived macrophages, expressing the CX3CR1 receptor, constitute the most abundant population (2).The manuscript by Marelli et al., is focused on the role of CX3CR1+ macrophages in both steady state and acute colitis. In the last few years intensive research has been performed in order to explain the role of these immune cells in the maintenance of homeostasis, but still, contrasting results have been reported regarding their role in the control of inflammatory response in the intestine (3,4). Considering this confused landscape, our paper aimed to clarify the role of CX3CR1+ cells in the development of acute colitis. By using mice lacking the receptor (CX3CR1GFP/GFP mice) we demonstrated that the absence of CX3CR1 on gut macrophages leads to a more severe degree of DSS-induced colitis, higher colon infiltration of inflammatory macrophages and Th17 lymphocytes and higher expression of inflammatory cytokines.Macrophages in the intestinal mucosa are considered mononuclear phagocytes that originate from a common myeloid progenitor which can differentiate also into dendritic cells (5). In contrast to others occupier macrophages, they are endlessly replenished from blood stream Ly6C+ monocytes, independently from the CX3CR1 receptor (6). This issue caused considerable misunderstanding in the past, generating the belief that these cells were dendritic cells (7,8). However, today it is recognized that Ly6Chi monocytes are recruited in the mucosa and there, in few days, they differentiate in mature macrophages, progressively loosing Ly6C and starting to express typical markers, such as F4/80, CD64, MHCII and CX3CR1 (6). As highlighted before, different authors investigated the role of CX3CR1+ gut macrophages with controversial outcomes.CX3CR1+ macrophages are supposed to maintain homeostasis in the gut (9). In accordance with this concept, our data revealed an exacerbated intestinal inflammation with a huge accumulation of macrophages in CX3CR1-KO mice. As reported also by different authors, (3,10) the natural consequence of the accumulation of macrophages is an increased production of cytokines, and hence a higher recruitment of immune cells in the colon, in particular T lymphocytes of the Th1 7 subset. On the contrary, other authors (4) suggested that the lack of the receptor impairs macrophages accumulation in the lamina propria. Moreover they suggested that the engagement of the receptor by its unique ligand (Fracktalkine/CX3CL1) resulted in an intensification of iNOS production, an inflammatory enzyme. Our data, instead, clearly demonstrate that the absence of the receptor increases the level of iNOS and of many other pro-inflammatory cytokines. This is a tissue-specific competence of the intestine, being colonic resident macrophages an exemption from the rules. Indeed, in other tissues, the expression of CX3CR1 receptor is associated with a pro-inflammatory phe nonype (11,12). In support of our data it is important to underline that, in the gut, CX3CR1 macrophages are fundamental to bring antigens and present them to DC in order to establish oral tolerance. When this mechanism is missing due to the lack of the receptor, the immune system is activated and this results in an acute inflammatory response (8).We have shown in Marelli et al. that if the CX3CR1 receptor is lacking, the ability of these cells to control inflammation is lost. Of note, CX3CR1-KO macrophages try counter-balance this aberrant situation by producing more IL-10, a major immune-suppressive and anti-inflammatory cytokine. In spite of this increase, IL-10 is not sufficient to control the inflammatory disease and mice have an exacerbated colitis.Overall, with our study we wanted to propose a authorised protective and anti-inflammatory role of CX3CR1+ macrophages during the processes of acute colitis this concept may shed light also on the role of these cells in other morbid conditions of the gut associated with persistent inflammation. Our study established that macrophages expressing the functional CX3CR1 receptor have a non-redundant role in the control of aberrant intestinal inflammation, a pestilential condition that may lead to tissue injury.CX3CR1 receptor expressed on intestinal macrophages is able to control colitis, avoiding the rise of aberrant inflammation. When the receptor is missing, the balance in the gut is broken, leading these cells to produce a huge amount of cytokines. Feeling the higher level of inflammation, CX3CR1 macrophages attempt to limit it by producing more IL-10, however this is not sufficient and the result is a higher accumulation of inflammatory Th17 lymphocytes and increased tissue injury.

Six History Shaping Beverages History Essay

Six History Shaping Beverages History EssayTom Standage states in A History of the World in Six Glasses that the trend of clement history has been shaped by six beverages that be commonplace today. The roles of these beverages beer, wine, spirits, coffee, tea, and Coca-Cola are explained in roughly chronological in the book. Although all of these drinks have helped call up culture, some were more important than others in this respect. In order of importance, the arrangement of the drinks would be quite different.Beer, the most important, was discovered long before the emergence of civilization, when nation lived as hunter-gatherers. The transition to farming was a major step towards civilization, and while the reason for it is still controversial, beer seems to have been a factor. One theory suggests that the popularity of beer necessitated a quiet supply of grain, which was required to make beer, and brought about the cultivation of it. Because beer was drunk prehistorically while still fermenting and rich in protein and vitamins, it allowed farmers to consume less meat, thus assisting the tag on to farming. Furthermore, the Ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians regarded beer as a drink given by gods, which contributed to the alteration of storehouses for surplus food into temples where offerings were made to these gods. Beer was a crucial factor contributing to the conversion to farming, and as a proceeds, the beginning of civilization it was undoubtedly a major catalyst for advancing culture.Coca-Cola, often associated with commercialization and globalization, is the second most important catalyst, specially since globalization is viewed today as an indicator of a high degree of advancement. The beverage evolved from being a strictly American product to its now internationally famous status in just over a century. As its popularity spread throughout the world, it brought many American values, such as liberty, with it. In fact, Coca-Cola was the ge nuinely embodiment of these values in World War II, during which the Axis countries of Japan and Germany used the drink to portray the United States and the Allies negatively, denouncing the concepts associated with it. Bottles of Coca-Cola contained more than a slowly drink they contained complex ideas that entire governments have been based upon.Next in importance in the line of beverages that influenced history is coffee. Coffee originated in the Arab world, but it had a much greater impact on Europe. More important than the drink, itself was the place that it was often served in a coffeehouse. In coffeehouses throughout Europe, discussion and debate, as considerably as gossip, took place. Many people learned of current events in coffeehouses, and others made scientific advancements after academic discussions occurred there. Inevitably, political ideas were also spread in coffeehouses, as in the case of France, in which a revolutionary war for fair rights started at a caf. Coff ee, which sharpens the mind, promoted new ideas and discoveries through discussion, and even helped start a revolution.though not as powerful as beer, Coca-Cola, or coffee were, tea assisted the development of culture. The Industrial Revolution in 18th-century England caused the introduction of numerous factories, and tea, served to the workers of these factories, unbroken them alert and prevented illness. It also increased the demand for crockery, fueling commerce even more. Tea had a large effect on Asia, specifically China and India. The Opium Wars, the result of the trade of opium because of the demand for tea, ended with China engaging in wider trade with other countries. In India, the cultivation of tea started by the East India Company created a new industry and eventually made India the largest producer of tea in the world. Tea contributed to the advancement of culture by furthering industrialization in several modern nations, as well as increasing international trade.In t he Mediterranean basin, wine contend a moderate role in shaping history, translucent in its representation of sophistication in the area at the time. In Greek symposia, wine accompanied intellectual discussion in subjects like literary productions and philosophy. At some symposia, kottabos, a less academic drinking game, took place instead. Wine was associated with art as well as academics the amphorae in which wine was stored contained motifs that are now symbols of Greek culture. Additionally, wine became widely drunk in Ancient Rome, where convivia, the Roman counterpart of symposia, took place. In both Greece and Rome, wine helped to differentiate classes higher classes consumed higher-quality wine. This widespread alcoholic drink took the place of beer, promoting intellectual thinking in casual assemblies and emphasizing differences between social classes.Spirits were the least significant beverage discussed by Standage, but nonetheless, they were indispensable drinks that aided the advancement of culture. For instance, grog protected British sailors against scurvy this helped Britain establish its supremacy at sea. For the English colonies, rum lowered dependence on European imports, as it could be distilled from inexpensive leftover molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733, passed by England to stop the importation of molasses from the French into the colonies, produced negative feelings toward England, and was one of the factors leading to the American Revolution. On the other hand, rum was one of the main currencies involved in the slave trade from Africa, a step backwards in the development of culture. Spirits bear upon human history both positively and negatively, and while it assisted the advancement of culture, it also hindered it.Beer, Coca-Cola, coffee, tea, wine, and spirits have all had considerable effects on human history. These beverages, which are frequently consumed even now, can tell the story of the progress of civilization solely throu gh their respective roles in it. Some have played a more important part than others in shaping world history, but they have all unquestionably served as catalysts for advancing culture.

Inclusion Special Ed Essay -- essays papers

Inclusion Special EdINCLUSION OF SPECIAL ED STUDENTS Inclusive education means that all students in a school, despite their strengths or weaknesses in any area, become part of the school community. They are included in the feeling of belonging among other students, teachers, and support staff. The federal Individuals with Disabilities Education recreate (IDEA) and its 1997 amendments make it clear that schools have a duty to educate fryren with disabilities in general education classrooms. These federal regulations include rulings that guide the regulation. The IDEA requires that children with disabilities be better in regular education classrooms unless the nature and severity of the disability is such that education in the regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily. This means that schools have a duty to try to include students with disabilities in the regular general education classes. Inclusion, however, does not m ean that the special needs child must learn everything and do as well as the other children in the classroom. Their grading is based how well they are learning in social intercourse to their individual education plan set up by the Child Study Team. The following charts gives examples of some adaptations that may be made, just to give a general idea of how the inclusion policy can be fair to all studentsNine Types of AdaptationsSize Time Level of Support Adapt the round of item...

Europeans and Disease: Allies in Conquering Continents :: European Europe History

Europeans and Disease Allies in Conquering Continents Chinese proverb claims that the rat is the most clever and strongest survivor of all carnals. The rat turn out itself in the beginning of time when god held a race for all of his animals the rat was clever enough to hide in the ear of a liberal beast, and at the last second he leapt out of the beasts ear and crossed the finish line before the beast. Disease tells a similar history, in which it has been commensurate to spread itself through out the entire world, through the nave and unknowing help of humans and animals.Earlier in history, Europe seemed to be an epicenter for disease. This was root in the fact that the Europeans, more so than any other population, lived nigh with their livestock. Farmers and the surrounding aggregate nations survived harsh winters and hot summers where it was necessary to share indoor berth with animals. Additionally, they had excessive contact with them and little understanding of what hubs o f nastiness their fury friends were or what control centers for disease they themselves would become. Humans have historically shown a deep semblance for livestock and continue to do so, currently, in New Zealand there are more sheep unplowed than there are people on the island. In fact, in some cases, people seemed to have developed such a tenderness for their animals that they resort to practicing bestiality. Several common human diseases are closely related to animal diseases. Smallpox developed from cowpox and measles is closely related to rinderpest (another bovine disease). But whether it is through cuddling, milking or whipping our animals, we have managed to remain intimately involved over the centuries and disease has lovingly appreciated it by spreading itself far and wide. The populations of the American continents however, did not experience the same spread of disease that the Europeans did. They kept almost no domestic animals. Consequently, their immune systems had fe w antibodies developed to combat even the weakest strings of disease. Also, they did not live in crowds the way that Europeans did. Early in the middle ages the Europeans had not only settled and become dependent on their agriculture and livestock, but they had developed large cities like London where thousands of people lived in close quarters, and had given little thought to the disposal of waste. Native Americans did live in tribes but did not have permanent living quarters that compared to the coat of some of the European cities.

Essays --

Many diverse cultures exist across the globe, differing in several aspects, such as beliefs, practices, and values. An example of two cultures that institute dissimilar values are superannuated Anglo-Saxon and Ancient Mesopotamian. These two cultures are known to have expressed opposing belligerentic values. Two texts that push aside be accurately used in this comparison are Beowulf, an Ancient Anglo-Saxon text, and The Epic of Gilgamesh, an Ancient Mesopotamian text.Beowulf is among the earliest surviving works of literature. It was written in Old English and dates back sometime before the tenth century A.D. The poem is set in Scandinavia, and tells the story of the heroic warrior, Beowulf. Beowulf was the perfect hero. He fought for his pot and defeated evil with his ability to bring on justice. Three of Beowulfs traits that serve as evidence of this were his remarkable physical strength, his ability to put the benefit of others before his own well-being, and his courage. Beo wulf was a true hero, in the eyes of many, through said traits. He fought a number of battles and was triumphant in all, except his sound battle. Beowulf possessed the skills and power necessary to kill Grendel, the monster who had been terrorizing the Danes for over a decade, with his bare hands. While fighting, Beowulf detached Grendels arm from his shoulder, which was later hung up as a trophy. Beowulf eventually put an end to Grendels life, and naturally, Grendels mother had pursued Beowulf. Although Grendels mother was an even deadlier monster than her son, Beowulf once again turn out his abilities by slaying her, as well. He slashed her neck with a sword that carried unbearable weight. Afterwards, he carried her head with only his own arms, while it took the a... ...concerns was fame. He only wanted to build his name. Another way in which Gilgamesh did not demonstrate the same heroic values as Beowulf is the fact that he was not fearless. He was afraid of his own death. We witnessed this after Enkidu died, when he set out on his journey to gain immortality. In both Ancient Anglo-Saxon and Ancient Mesopotamian cultures, works of literature portray heroes such Beowulf and Gilgamesh, and the heroic values that they possessed. The heroes, Beowulf and Gilgamesh, had both similar and dissimilar heroic values, however, Beowulf was by far a better hero than Gilgamesh. While Beowulf and Gilgamesh both possessed remarkable strength and courage, Beowulf was fearless and selfless, which makes him a true hero. After comparing the two texts, it is fair to say that Ancient Anglo-Saxons remain firm by stricter guidelines in terms of heroic values.

The Impact of Terrorism on Immigration Essay -- Exploratory Essays Res

The Impact of Terrorism on in-migration Always on the lookout for opportunities to press their case, anti-immigration advocates lost no time after the attacks of September 11. As one of them pointed out in testimony before the Senate, It seems clear that the 19 terrorists of September 11 were all foreign citizens and entered the United States legally, as tourists, business travelers, or students. This was also true of the perpetrators of previous terrorist acts . . . While it is absolutely essential that we not scapegoat immigrants, especially Muslim immigrants, we also must not overlook the most obvious fact the current terrorist threat to the United States comes almost simply from individuals who arrive from abroad. Thus, our immigration policy, including temporary and permanent visas issuance, border control, and efforts to deal with illegal immigration are all critical to reducing the chance of an attack in the future.1 On a more extreme note, Pat Buchanan urged an immediate mo ratorium on all immigration, an expansion of the Border Patrol to 20,000, a radical decrease of visas issued to nationals of states that harbor terrorists, and the expedited deportation of the eight-to-11 million illegal aliens, beginnings with those from rogue nations. Moreover, President Bushs amnesty proposal - a reference to ongoing negotiations between the United States and Mexico for a newly immigration program, which might include legalization of unauthorized residents - should be quietly interred.2 In the country at large, the attacks unleashed a spate of aggressions against people who were seen as resembling the terrorists or believed to sympathize with them, occasionally with tragic consequences. Overall, Washing... ...d in sensitivesweek, November 12, 2001. 6 John Torpey, The Invention of the Passport Surveillance, Citizenship, and the State (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1999). 7 These figures are taken from Annual Reports of the Immigration and Naturalizati on Service I am grateful to Fred C for his assistance in gathering the appropriate data. 8 Longer Visa Waits for Arabs, The New York Times, Nov. 10, 2001 B5. 9 The Washington Post, Oct. 30, 2001 A1. 10 In Sweeping Campus Canvasses, U.S. Checks on Mideast Students... The New York Times, Nov. 12, 2001 B8. 11 The Washington Post, Oct, 25, 2001 A24. 12 Christian Science Monitor, September 19, 2001, 1. 13 The San Diego Union-Tribune, October 25, 2001. 14 The New York Times, September 27, 2001 B3. 15 National Post, October 10, 2001. 16 The New York Times, Oct. 26, 2001 A18.

The Madina Collection of Islamic Art at the LACMA Essay example -- ess

The Madina Collection of Islamic Art at the LACMAIntroductionThe Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) announced recently that it had acquired the remarkable Madina Collection of Islamic art. The collection contains workings of various media dating from the late 7th through 19th centuries from the vast areas that comprise the Islamic world, from Southern Spain to Central Asia (Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 2005). While the museum already had quite an capacious collection of Islamic art, this particular exhibit truly adds the collections as a whole. The Madina Collection of Islamic ArtThe first item to be examined is a manger from the 14th century, from either Egypt or Syria (Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 2005). It is ceramic, fritware and is underglazed-painted (Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 2005). It is 10 and inches in diameter. The design is very symmetrical and incredibly colorful in its green and cream along with downcast lines. Without knowing what the desig n symbolizes one could imagine that it is very much an Islamic design, and appears to be religious or spiritual in content. There is a Mandela carriage to the design, with very strong lines and striking elements. http//collectionsonline.lacma.org/mwebcgi/mweb.exe?request=record&key=8533The next piece to be examined is cup from the 13th century, from Greater Iran. This cup is Silver, gilded, chased and punched and measures 3 7/8 x 4 5/8 in. (9.84 x 11.75 c...